Engineering codes are active, dynamic, and constantly evolving. They are subject to changes as new information becomes available, whether from research or practical experience, and are modified accordingly. They are also reviewed for their precision and for possible inconsistencies, keeping in mind the generally complex relationship interlinking different codes and standards. As cross-referencing is the […]

Defining raw water needs as well as potential raw water source, is the starting point of work to define the water treatment methods in Industry applications. Water treatment processes will be as much intensive as it is the water quality required for the process itself, being the purity of water used to feed high pressure […]

The presence of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions in a water supply is commonly known as “hardness.” The degree of hardness is classified as follows: The main problem associated with hardness is scale and deposits formation. Even levels as low as 5 to 8 mg/L are too extreme for many uses (i.e. as boiler […]

Any activities, whether domestic or industrial produce wastewaters or effluents containing undesirable contaminants that must be removed before the water is discharged to a natural receptor. In general, conventional wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes and operations to remove insoluble particles and soluble contaminants from effluents. There are various […]

FEED (Front End Engineering Design) Front End Engineering Design (FEED), also referred to as Front-end loading (FEL), feasibility analysis or conceptual planning, is the process for conceptual development of projects in processing industries such as upstream, petrochemical, refining and pharmaceutical. This involves developing sufficient strategic information with which owners can address risk and make decisions […]

Thin-walled pressure vessels are widely used in industry for storage and transportation of liquids and gases when configured as tanks. For most applications, pressure vessels are either spherical or cylindrical. Depending on the application, pressure vessels will adopt one shape or the other. Most pressure vessels are fabricated from curved metal sheets that are joined […]